The left back missed Chelsea's final seven games of last season after injuring his knee during a 1-0 loss to Manchester City in April.
Chelsea then tried to sell him over the summer but failed to find a buyer.
Chilwell - who is still under contract at Stamford Bridge until June 2027, having signed an extension last year - wore the captain's armband during the second half on Tuesday.
He was greeted with loud cheers from the stands as he returned to the pitch and he later lapped up more applause after the final whistle.
Chilwell touched the ball 36 times during his 45-minute cameo at Stamford Bridge.
He made three tackles, as well as creating two scoring chances for his team-mates.
Shortly after the game had ended, Chilwell sent a message to Chelsea's fans via Instagram.
Alongside two photos, he posted the words: 'Missed nights at the Bridge in front of you guys', followed by a blue heart emoji.
Chelsea boss Enzo Maresca fielded many of his squad players against League Two Barrow.
Maresca's starting XI featured zero members of the side that had begun Saturday's 3-0 win away at West Ham.
Chilwell, 27, shook hands with Chelsea manager Enzo Maresca on the pitch after full-time
Christopher Nkunku grabbed his opportunity to impress by scoring the first hat-trick of his Chelsea career. Pedro Neto also found the net.
Chelsea's other goal was officially an own goal scored by Barrow keeper Paul Farman, but it was the product of a fine Joao Felix free-kick.
Felix had earlier produced a stylish assist for Nkunku's opener.